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tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-346799902009-10-04T13:31:09.991+02:00Chinh's archivesHistory of China 中国历史chinh dang-vuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07039127063136622604noreply@blogger.comBlogger283125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-34679990.post-28793895747510512532009-08-23T23:55:00.001+02:002009-08-24T00:01:01.632+02:00Han Dynasty<div style="text-align: left; ">The Han Dynasty (汉朝; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin" rel="nofollow" title="Pinyin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">pinyin</a>: Hàn Cháo; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade-Giles" rel="nofollow" title="Wade-Giles" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wade-Giles</a>: Han Ch'ao, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Chinese" rel="nofollow" title="Old Chinese" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Old Chinese</a>: ŋ̥ānh ḍhaw; 206 BCE–220 CE) was the second <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" rel="nofollow" title="Dynasties in Chinese history" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">imperial dynasty of China</a>, preceded by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Qin Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qin Dynasty</a> (221–206 BCE) and succeeded by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" rel="nofollow" title="Three Kingdoms" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Three Kingdoms</a> (220–265 CE). It was founded by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant" rel="nofollow" title="Peasant" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">peasant</a> rebel leader Liu Bang, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posthumous_name" rel="nofollow" title="Posthumous name" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">known posthumously</a> as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Gaozu of Han</a>. </div><div style="text-align: left; ">It was briefly interrupted by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Xin Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xin Dynasty</a> (9–23 CE) of the former regent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Mang" rel="nofollow" title="Wang Mang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wang Mang</a>. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE–9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age" rel="nofollow" title="Golden age" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">golden age</a> in Chinese history.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[1]</a> To this day, China's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Chinese" rel="nofollow" title="Han Chinese" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">majority ethnic group</a> refers to itself as the "Han people".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[2]</a></div>The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government, known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandery" rel="nofollow" title="Commandery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">commanderies</a>, and a number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Kings of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">semi-autonomous kingdoms</a>. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion_of_the_Seven_States" rel="nofollow" title="Rebellion of the Seven States" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Rebellion of the Seven States</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu" rel="nofollow" title="Xiongnu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xiongnu</a>, a nomadic confederation of Central Asian tribes which dominated the eastern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" rel="nofollow" title="Eurasian Steppe" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Eurasian Steppe</a>, defeated the Han in battle in 200 BCE. Following the defeat a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heqin" rel="nofollow" title="Heqin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">political marriage alliance</a> was negotiated in which the Han became the de facto inferior partner. When, despite the treaty, the Xiongnu continued to raid Han borders, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Wu of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Wu of Han</a> (r. 141–87 BCE) launched <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Xiongnu_War" rel="nofollow" title="Sino-Xiongnu War" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">several military campaigns</a> against them, which eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" rel="nofollow" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Han tributaries</a>. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim_Basin" rel="nofollow" title="Tarim Basin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Tarim Basin</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia" rel="nofollow" title="Central Asia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Central Asia</a>, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road" rel="nofollow" title="Silk Road" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Silk Road</a>, which reached as far as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" rel="nofollow" title="History of the Mediterranean region" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Mediterranean world</a>. Han forces managed to divide the Xiongnu into two competing nations, the Southern and Northern Xiongnu, and forced the Northern Xiongnu across the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ili_River" rel="nofollow" title="Ili River" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ili River</a>. Despite this victory, the territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xianbei" rel="nofollow" title="Xianbei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xianbei</a> Confederation.After 92 CE, the palace <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch" rel="nofollow" title="Eunuch" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">eunuchs</a> increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consort_clan" rel="nofollow" title="Consort clan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">consort clans</a> of the empresses and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_dowager" rel="nofollow" title="Empress dowager" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">empress dowagers</a>, causing Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by massive <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoist" rel="nofollow" title="Daoist" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Daoist</a> religious societies which instigated the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" rel="nofollow" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" rel="nofollow" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion</a>. Following the death of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ling_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Ling of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Ling</a> (r. 168–189 CE), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Military history of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">military officers</a>, allowing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord" rel="nofollow" title="Warlord" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">warlords</a> to divide the empire. When <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Pi" rel="nofollow" title="Cao Pi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cao Pi</a>, King of Wei, usurped the throne from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Xian of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Xian</a>, the Han Dynasty was ended.The Han Dynasty was an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Economy of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">age of economic prosperity</a>, and saw a significant growth of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_currency#Imperial_China" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese currency" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">money economy</a> first established during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Zhou Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhou Dynasty</a> (c. 1050–256 BCE). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" rel="nofollow" title="Ancient Chinese coinage" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">The coinage</a> issued by the central government <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mint_(coin)" rel="nofollow" title="Mint (coin)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">mint</a> in 119 BCE remained the standard coinage of China until the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Tang Dynasty" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907 CE). To pay for its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the government <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization" rel="nofollow" title="Nationalization" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">nationalized</a> the private salt and iron industries in 117 BCE. These government monopolies were repealed during Eastern Han, and the lost revenue was recouped through heavily taxing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Economic history of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">private entrepreneurs</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">The emperor</a> was at the pinnacle of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Society and culture of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Han society</a>. He presided over the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Government of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Han government</a>, but shared power with both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_nobility" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese nobility" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">the nobility</a> and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentry_(China)" rel="nofollow" title="Gentry (China)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">gentry class</a>. From the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" rel="nofollow" title="Confucianism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Confucianism</a> in education and court politics, synthesized with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology" rel="nofollow" title="Cosmology" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cosmology</a> of later scholars such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" rel="nofollow" title="Dong Zhongshu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dong Zhongshu</a>. This policy endured until the fall of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Qing Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qing Dynasty</a> in 1911 CE. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Science and technology of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Science and technology during Han</a> saw significant advances, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papermaking" rel="nofollow" title="Papermaking" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">papermaking</a>, the nautical steering <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder" rel="nofollow" title="Rudder" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">rudder</a>, the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_and_non-negative_numbers" rel="nofollow" title="Negative and non-negative numbers" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">negative numbers</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese mathematics" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">mathematics</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised-relief_map" rel="nofollow" title="Raised-relief map" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">raised-relief map</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics" rel="nofollow" title="Hydraulics" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">hydraulic</a>-powered <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" rel="nofollow" title="Armillary sphere" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">armillary sphere</a> for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese astronomy" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">astronomy</a>, and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismometer" rel="nofollow" title="Seismometer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">seismometer</a> employing an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_pendulum" rel="nofollow" title="Inverted pendulum" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">inverted pendulum</a>.<h2 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 4px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: normal; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 19px; "><a name="TOC-History" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>History</h2><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Western-Han" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Western Han</h3><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" rel="nofollow" title="China" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">China</a>'s first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" rel="nofollow" title="Dynasties in Chinese history" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">imperial dynasty</a> was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Qin Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qin Dynasty</a> (221–206 BCE). The Qin had unified the Chinese <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_Period" rel="nofollow" title="Warring States Period" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Warring States</a> by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" rel="nofollow" title="Qin Shi Huang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qin Shi Huang</a>. Within four years the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1999_60_61-2" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[3]</a> Two former rebel leaders, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiang_Yu" rel="nofollow" title="Xiang Yu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xiang Yu</a> (d. 202 BCE) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Chu" rel="nofollow" title="Kingdom of Chu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chu</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bang" rel="nofollow" title="Liu Bang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu Bang</a> (d. 195 BCE) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanzhong" rel="nofollow" title="Hanzhong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Han</a>, engaged <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu-Han_contention" rel="nofollow" title="Chu-Han contention" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">in a war</a> to decide who would become <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hegemon" rel="nofollow" title="wiktionary:hegemon" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">hegemon</a> of China, which had fissured into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18_Kingdoms" rel="nofollow" title="18 Kingdoms" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">18 Kingdoms</a>, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-3" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[4]</a> Although Xiang Yu proved to be a capable commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gaixia" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Gaixia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Gaixia</a>, in modern-day <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhui" rel="nofollow" title="Anhui" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Anhui</a>. Liu Bang assumed the title <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">'emperor'</a> (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Gaozu</a> (r. 202–195 BCE).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-4" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[5]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27an" rel="nofollow" title="Chang'an" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chang'an</a> was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-loewe_1986_122-5" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[6]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, thirteen centrally-controlled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandery" rel="nofollow" title="Commandery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">commanderies</a>—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds was divided into ten <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Kings of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">semi-autonomous kingdoms</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-loewe_1986_122_125-7" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[8]</a> To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeoffment" rel="nofollow" title="Enfeoffment" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">enfeoffed</a> some of them as kings. By 157 BCE, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu" rel="nofollow" title="Liu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu</a> family members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne was questioned.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-loewe_1986_122_125-7" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[8]</a> </div><div style="text-align: left; ">After several insurrections by Han kings—the largest being the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion_of_the_Seven_States" rel="nofollow" title="Rebellion of the Seven States" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Rebellion of the Seven States</a> in 154 BCE—the imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BCE, limiting the size and power of these kingdoms and dividing them into smaller ones or new commanderies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-8" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[9]</a> Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_106_chu_1972_76-9" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[10]</a> Kings became nominal heads of their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fief" rel="nofollow" title="Fief" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">fiefs</a>, and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_106_chu_1972_76-9" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[10]</a> The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_105-10" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[11]</a></div>To the north of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_proper" rel="nofollow" title="China proper" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">China proper</a>, the nomadic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu" rel="nofollow" title="Xiongnu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xiongnu</a> chieftain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modu_Chanyu" rel="nofollow" title="Modu Chanyu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Modu Chanyu</a> (r. 209–174 BCE) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" rel="nofollow" title="Eurasian Steppe" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Eurasian Steppe</a>. By the end of his reign, he controlled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria" rel="nofollow" title="Manchuria" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Manchuria</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia" rel="nofollow" title="Mongolia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Mongolia</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim_Basin" rel="nofollow" title="Tarim Basin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Tarim Basin</a>, subjugating over twenty states east of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand" rel="nofollow" title="Samarkand" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Samarkand</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-11" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[12]</a> Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embargo" rel="nofollow" title="Embargo" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">embargo</a> against the group.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-torday_1997_75_77-12" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[13]</a> In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanxi" rel="nofollow" title="Shanxi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shanxi</a> province, where they <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Baideng" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Baideng" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">defeated the Han forces at Baideng</a> in 200 BCE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-13" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[14]</a> After negotiations, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heqin" rel="nofollow" title="Heqin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">heqin</a> agreement in 198 BCE nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk" rel="nofollow" title="Silk" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">silk</a> clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-14" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[15]</a>Despite the tribute and a negotiation between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laoshang_Chanyu" rel="nofollow" title="Laoshang Chanyu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Laoshang Chanyu</a> (r. 174–160 BCE) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Wen of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Wen</a> (r. 180–157 BCE) to reopen border markets, many of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanyu" rel="nofollow" title="Chanyu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">chanyu</a>'s Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Great Wall of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Great Wall</a> for additional goods.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-15" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[16]</a> In a court conference assembled by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Wu of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Wu</a> (r. 141–87 BCE) in 135 BCE, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" rel="nofollow" title="Consensus decision-making" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">majority-consensus</a> of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this despite continuing Xiongnu raids.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-16" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[17]</a> However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mayi" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Mayi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">limited engagement at Mayi</a> involving the assassination of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanyu" rel="nofollow" title="Chanyu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chanyu</a> would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-17" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[18]</a> When this plot failed in 133 BCE,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-18" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[19]</a> Emperor Wu launched a series of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Xiongnu_War" rel="nofollow" title="Sino-Xiongnu War" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">massive military invasions</a> of Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in119 BCE at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mobei" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Mobei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Mobei</a>, where the Han commanders <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huo_Qubing" rel="nofollow" title="Huo Qubing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huo Qubing</a> (d. 117 BCE) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wei_Qing" rel="nofollow" title="Wei Qing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wei Qing</a> (d. 106 BCE) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobi_Desert" rel="nofollow" title="Gobi Desert" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gobi Desert</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-19" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[20]</a>After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (呼韓邪) (r. 58–31 BCE) finally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BCE. His rival claimant to the throne, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhizhi_Chanyu" rel="nofollow" title="Zhizhi Chanyu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhizhi Chanyu</a> (r. 56–36 BCE), was killed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Tang" rel="nofollow" title="Chen Tang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chen Tang</a> and Gan Yanshou (甘延壽/甘延寿) at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zhizhi" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Zhizhi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Zhizhi</a>, in modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taraz" rel="nofollow" title="Taraz" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Taraz</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan" rel="nofollow" title="Kazakhstan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Kazakhstan</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-20" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[21]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">In 121 BCE, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexi_Corridor" rel="nofollow" title="Hexi Corridor" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Hexi Corridor</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lop_Nur" rel="nofollow" title="Lop Nur" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lop Nur</a>. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiang_people" rel="nofollow" title="Qiang people" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qiang</a> invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BCE. In that year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiuquan" rel="nofollow" title="Jiuquan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Jiuquan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangyi" rel="nofollow" title="Zhangyi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhangyi</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunhuang" rel="nofollow" title="Dunhuang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dunhuang</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuwei,_Gansu" rel="nofollow" title="Wuwei, Gansu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wuwei</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-22" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[23]</a> The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-23" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[24]</a> On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labor.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-24" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[25]</a> The court also encouraged <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commoner" rel="nofollow" title="Commoner" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">commoners</a>, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers to voluntarily migrate to the frontier.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-25" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[26]</a></div>Even before Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qian" rel="nofollow" title="Zhang Qian" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhang Qian</a>'s travels from 139–125 BCE had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayuan" rel="nofollow" title="Dayuan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dayuan</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergana" rel="nofollow" title="Fergana" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Fergana</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangju" rel="nofollow" title="Kangju" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Kangju</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sogdiana" rel="nofollow" title="Sogdiana" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sogdiana</a>), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daxia" rel="nofollow" title="Daxia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Daxia</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria" rel="nofollow" title="Bactria" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Bactria</a>, formerly the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" rel="nofollow" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a>); he also gathered information on Shendu (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River" rel="nofollow" title="Indus River" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Indus River</a> valley of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_India" rel="nofollow" title="North India" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">North India</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxi" rel="nofollow" title="Anxi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Anxi</a> (the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsacid_Empire" rel="nofollow" title="Arsacid Empire" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Arsacid Empire</a>). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-26" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[27]</a> These connections marked the beginning of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road" rel="nofollow" title="Silk Road" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Silk Road</a> trade network that extended to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" rel="nofollow" title="Roman Empire" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Roman Empire</a>, bringing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_silk" rel="nofollow" title="History of silk" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Han items like silk</a> to Rome and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_glass" rel="nofollow" title="Roman glass" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Roman goods such as glasswares</a> to China.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-27" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[28]</a> From roughly 115–60 BCE, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state" rel="nofollow" title="City-state" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">city-states</a> in the Tarim Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" rel="nofollow" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> in 60 BCE, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-28" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[29]</a> The naval conquest of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanyue" rel="nofollow" title="Nanyue" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Nanyue</a> in 111 BCE expanded the Han realm into what are now modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong" rel="nofollow" title="Guangdong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Guangdong</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxi" rel="nofollow" title="Guangxi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Guangxi</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_southern_Vietnam" rel="nofollow" title="Northern and southern Vietnam" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">northern Vietnam</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnan" rel="nofollow" title="Yunnan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yunnan</a> was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dian_Kingdom" rel="nofollow" title="Dian Kingdom" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dian Kingdom</a> in 109 BCE and into the northern part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Peninsula" rel="nofollow" title="Korean Peninsula" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Korean Peninsula</a> with the colonial establishments of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuantu_Commandery" rel="nofollow" title="Xuantu Commandery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xuantu Commandery</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lelang_Commandery" rel="nofollow" title="Lelang Commandery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lelang Commandery</a> in 108 BCE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-29" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[30]</a> In China's first known nationwide <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census" rel="nofollow" title="Census" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">census</a> taken in 2 CE, the population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-30" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[31]</a>To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization" rel="nofollow" title="Nationalization" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">nationalized</a> several private industries, creating new central government <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly" rel="nofollow" title="Monopoly" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">monopolies</a> administered largely by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_occupations" rel="nofollow" title="Four occupations" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">former merchants</a>. These monopolies included salt, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ferrous_metallurgy" rel="nofollow" title="History of ferrous metallurgy" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">iron</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_alcoholic_beverages" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese alcoholic beverages" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">liquor</a> production, as well as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" rel="nofollow" title="Ancient Chinese coinage" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bronze-coin currency</a>. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98–81 BCE, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han Dynasty.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-31" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[32]</a> The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent" rel="nofollow" title="Regent" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">regency</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huo_Guang" rel="nofollow" title="Huo Guang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huo Guang</a> (d. 68 BCE). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favoring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_budget" rel="nofollow" title="Government budget" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">budget</a> reform, and lower tax rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-32" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-32" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">33</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-32" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Wang-Mang-s-reign-and-civil-war" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Wang Mang's reign and civil war</h3><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Wang_Zhengjun" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Wang Zhengjun" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wang Zhengjun</a> (71 BCE–13 CE) was first empress, then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_dowager" rel="nofollow" title="Empress dowager" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">empress dowager</a>, and finally <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_empress_dowager" rel="nofollow" title="Grand empress dowager" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">grand empress dowager</a> during the reigns of the Emperors <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Yuan of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yuan</a> (r. 49–33 BCE), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Cheng_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Cheng of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cheng</a> (r. 33–7 BCE), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ai_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Ai of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ai</a> (r. 7–1 BCE), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-33" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[34]</a> Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Mang" rel="nofollow" title="Wang Mang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wang Mang</a> (45 BCE–23 CE) was appointed regent for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ping_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Ping of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Ping</a> (r. 1 BCE–6 CE). When Ping died in 6 CE, the Empress Dowager appointed Wang Mang to act as emperor for the child <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruzi_Ying" rel="nofollow" title="Ruzi Ying" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu Ying</a> (d. 25 CE). Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-34" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[35]</a> Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed that the divine <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" rel="nofollow" title="Mandate of Heaven" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Mandate of Heaven</a> called for the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of his own: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Xin Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xin Dynasty</a> (9–23 CE).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-35" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[36]</a>Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery" rel="nofollow" title="History of slavery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">outlawing slavery</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization" rel="nofollow" title="Nationalization" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">nationalizing</a> land to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-field_system" rel="nofollow" title="Well-field system" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">equally distribute</a> between households, and introducing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_currency" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese currency" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">new currencies</a>, a change which debased the value of coinage.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-36" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[37]</a> Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c. 3 CE and 11 CE. Gradual silt buildup in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River" rel="nofollow" title="Yellow River" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yellow River</a> had risen its water level and overwhelmed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control" rel="nofollow" title="Flood control" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">flood control works</a>. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" rel="nofollow" title="Shandong Peninsula" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shandong Peninsula</a>, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-hansen_2000_135_de_Crespigny_2007_196_bielenstein_1986_241_244-37" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[38]</a> The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimei" rel="nofollow" title="Chimei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Red Eyebrows</a> to survive.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-hansen_2000_135_de_Crespigny_2007_196_bielenstein_1986_241_244-37" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[38]</a> Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weiyang_Palace" rel="nofollow" title="Weiyang Palace" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Weiyang Palace</a> and killed Wang Mang.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-38" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[39]</a><div style="text-align: left; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gengshi_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Gengshi of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Gengshi of Han</a> (r. 23–25 CE), a descendant of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Jing of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Jing</a> (r. 157–141 BCE), attempted to restore the Han Dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the "Red Eyebrow" rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Penzi" rel="nofollow" title="Liu Penzi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu Penzi</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-39" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[40]</a> Emperor Gengshi's brother Liu Xiu, known posthumously as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Guangwu of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Guangwu</a> (r. 25–57 CE), after distinguishing himself at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kunyang" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Kunyang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Kunyang</a> in 23 CE, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-40" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-40" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">41</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-40" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a></div><div style="text-align: left; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-40" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; "></a>Under Guangwu's rule the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoyang" rel="nofollow" title="Luoyang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Luoyang</a> his capital in 25 CE, and by 27 CE his officers <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_Yu" rel="nofollow" title="Deng Yu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Deng Yu</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Yi" rel="nofollow" title="Feng Yi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Feng Yi</a> had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason" rel="nofollow" title="Treason" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">treason</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-41" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[42]</a> From 26 until 36 CE, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-42" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[43]</a></div>The period between the foundation of the Han Dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han Dynasty (西汉 Xī Hàn) or Former Han Dynasty (前汉 Qiánhàn) (202 BCE–9 CE). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi%27an" rel="nofollow" title="Xi'an" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xi'an</a>). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="End of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">the fall of Han</a> is known as the Eastern Han Dynasty (东汉 Dōng Hàn) or the Later Han Dynasty (后汉 Hòu Hàn) (25–220 CE).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-43" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-43" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">44</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-43" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Eastern-Han" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Eastern Han</h3>During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea" rel="nofollow" title="Korea" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Korean</a> state of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goguryeo" rel="nofollow" title="Goguryeo" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Goguryeo</a> was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until 30 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-44" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[45]</a> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_Sisters" rel="nofollow" title="Trưng Sisters" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Trưng Sisters</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam" rel="nofollow" title="Vietnam" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Vietnam</a> rebelled against Han in 40 CE. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Yuan_(Han_Dynasty)" rel="nofollow" title="Ma Yuan (Han Dynasty)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ma Yuan</a> (d. 49 CE) in a campaign from 42–43 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-45" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[46]</a> Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 50 CE. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-46" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[47]</a>During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in 63 CE and used as a base to invade Han's Hexi Corridor in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu" rel="nofollow" title="Gansu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gansu</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-47" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-47" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">48</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-47" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dou_Gu" rel="nofollow" title="Dou Gu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dou Gu</a> (d. 88 CE) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yiwulu" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Yiwulu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Yiwulu</a> in 73 CE, evicting them from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turfan" rel="nofollow" title="Turfan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Turfan</a> and chasing them as far as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barkol_Kazakh_Autonomous_County" rel="nofollow" title="Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lake Barkol</a> before establishing a garrison <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hami_Prefecture" rel="nofollow" title="Hami Prefecture" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">at Hami</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-48" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[49]</a> After the new Protector General of the Western Regions <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Mu" rel="nofollow" title="Chen Mu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chen Mu</a> (d. 75 CE) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karasahr" rel="nofollow" title="Karasahr" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Karasahr</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kucha" rel="nofollow" title="Kucha" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Kucha</a>, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-49" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[50]</a> At the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ikh_Bayan" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Ikh Bayan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Ikh Bayan</a> in 89 CE, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dou_Xian" rel="nofollow" title="Dou Xian" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dou Xian</a> (d. 92 CE) defeated the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Chanyu_(1st_century)" rel="nofollow" title="Northern Chanyu (1st century)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Northern Xiongnu chanyu</a> who then retreated into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains" rel="nofollow" title="Altai Mountains" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Altai Mountains</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-50" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[51]</a> After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ili_River" rel="nofollow" title="Ili River" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ili River</a> valley in 91 CE, the nomadic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xianbei" rel="nofollow" title="Xianbei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xianbei</a> occupied the area from the borders of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyeo_Kingdom" rel="nofollow" title="Buyeo Kingdom" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Buyeo Kingdom</a> in Manchuria to the Ili River of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wusun" rel="nofollow" title="Wusun" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wusun</a> people.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-51" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[52]</a> The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (檀石槐) (d. 180 CE), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-52" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[53]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban_Chao" rel="nofollow" title="Ban Chao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ban Chao</a> (d. 102 CE) enlisted the aid of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empire" rel="nofollow" title="Kushan Empire" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Kushan Empire</a>, occupying the area of modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" rel="nofollow" title="India" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">India</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" rel="nofollow" title="Pakistan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Pakistan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan" rel="nofollow" title="Afghanistan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Afghanistan</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan" rel="nofollow" title="Tajikistan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Tajikistan</a>, to subdue <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashgar" rel="nofollow" title="Kashgar" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Kashgar</a> and its ally Sogdiana.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-torday_1997_393_de_Crespigny_2007_5_6-53" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[54]</a> When a request by Kushan ruler <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vima_Kadphises" rel="nofollow" title="Vima Kadphises" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Vima Kadphises</a> (r. c. 90–c. 100 CE) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in 90 CE, he sent his forces to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakhan" rel="nofollow" title="Wakhan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wakhan</a> (Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with Kushan withdrawing due to lack of supplies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-torday_1997_393_de_Crespigny_2007_5_6-53" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[54]</a> In 91 CE, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed to Ban Chao.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-54" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[55]</a>In addition to tributary relations with Kushan, the Han Empire received gifts from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsacid_Empire" rel="nofollow" title="Arsacid Empire" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Arsacids</a>, from a king in modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma" rel="nofollow" title="Burma" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Burma</a>, from a ruler <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wa_(Japan)" rel="nofollow" title="Wa (Japan)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">in Japan</a>, and initiated an unsuccessful mission to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daqin" rel="nofollow" title="Daqin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Daqin</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" rel="nofollow" title="Rome" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Rome</a>) in 97 CE with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gan_Ying" rel="nofollow" title="Gan Ying" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gan Ying</a> as emissary.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-55" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[56]</a> A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" rel="nofollow" title="Sino-Roman relations" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Roman embassy</a> of Emperor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" rel="nofollow" title="Marcus Aurelius" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Marcus Aurelius</a> (r. 161–180 CE) is believed to have reached the court of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Huan_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Huan of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Huan of Han</a> (r. 146–168 CE) in 166 CE, yet <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafe_de_Crespigny" rel="nofollow" title="Rafe de Crespigny" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Rafe de Crespigny</a> asserts that this was most likely a group of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_commerce" rel="nofollow" title="Roman commerce" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Roman merchants</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-56" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[57]</a> Other travelers to Eastern-Han China included <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhikkhu" rel="nofollow" title="Bhikkhu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Buddhist monks</a> who <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" rel="nofollow" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">translated works into Chinese</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Shigao" rel="nofollow" title="An Shigao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">An Shigao</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia" rel="nofollow" title="Parthia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Parthia</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokaksema" rel="nofollow" title="Lokaksema" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lokaksema</a> from Kushan-era <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara" rel="nofollow" title="Gandhara" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gandhara</a>, India.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-57" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: underline; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-57" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: underline; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">58</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-57" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: underline; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Eunuchs-in-state-affairs" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Eunuchs in state affairs</h3><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Zhang_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Zhang of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Zhang's</a> (r. 75–88 CE) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-58" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[59]</a> Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch" rel="nofollow" title="Eunuch" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">eunuch</a> intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consort_clan" rel="nofollow" title="Consort clan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">consort clans</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-59" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[60]</a> With the aid of the eunuch <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_Zhong" rel="nofollow" title="Zheng Zhong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zheng Zhong</a> (d. 107 CE), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_He_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor He of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor He</a> (r. 88–105 CE) had <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Dou_(Zhang)" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Dou (Zhang)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Empress Dowager Dou</a> (d. 97 CE) put under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_arrest" rel="nofollow" title="House arrest" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">house arrest</a> and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consort_Liang" rel="nofollow" title="Consort Liang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Consort Liang</a>—and then concealing her identity from him.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-60" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[61]</a> After Emperor He's death, his wife <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Deng_Sui" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Deng Sui" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Empress Deng Sui</a> (d. 121 CE), managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and the widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-61" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[62]</a>When Empress Dowager Deng died, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_An_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor An of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor An</a> (r. 106–125 CE) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them and forced many to commit suicide.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-62" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[63]</a> After An's death, his wife, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Yan_Ji" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Yan Ji" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Empress Dowager Yan</a> (d. 126 CE) placed the child <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquess_of_Beixiang" rel="nofollow" title="Marquess of Beixiang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Marquess of Beixiang</a> on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Cheng" rel="nofollow" title="Sun Cheng" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sun Cheng</a> (d. 132 CE) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Shun_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Shun of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Shun of Han</a> (r. 125–144 CE). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-63" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[64]</a> The regent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_Ji" rel="nofollow" title="Liang Ji" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liang Ji</a> (d. 159 CE), brother of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Liang_Na" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Liang Na" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Empress Liang Na</a> (d. 150 CE), had the brother-in-law of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Deng_Mengn%C3%BC" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Deng Mengnü" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Consort Deng Mengnü</a> (later empress) (d. 165 CE) killed after she resisted his attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-64" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[65]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">Students from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taixue" rel="nofollow" title="Taixue" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Imperial University</a> organized a widespread <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_protest" rel="nofollow" title="Student protest" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">student protest</a> against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-66" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[67]</a> Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubine" rel="nofollow" title="Concubine" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">concubines</a> in his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem" rel="nofollow" title="Harem" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">harem</a> at a time of economic crisis.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-67" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[68]</a> Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. </div><div style="text-align: left; ">In 167 CE, the Grand Commandant <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dou_Wu" rel="nofollow" title="Dou Wu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dou Wu</a> (d. 168 CE) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_602-68" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[69]</a> However the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disasters_of_Partisan_Prohibitions" rel="nofollow" title="Disasters of Partisan Prohibitions" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Partisan Prohibitions</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_602-68" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[69]</a></div>Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (陳蕃) (d. 168 CE) attempted a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" rel="nofollow" title="Coup d'état" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">coup d'état</a> against the eunuchs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hou_Lan" rel="nofollow" title="Hou Lan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Hou Lan</a> (d. 172 CE), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Jie_(eunuch)" rel="nofollow" title="Cao Jie (eunuch)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cao Jie</a> (d. 181 CE), and Wang Fu (王甫). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Dou_Miao" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Dou Miao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Empress Dowager Dou</a> (d. 172 CE) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan (張奐) favored the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-69" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[70]</a>Under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ling_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Ling of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Ling</a> (r. 168–189 CE) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while themselves auctioning off top government offices.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-70" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[71]</a> Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Zhong" rel="nofollow" title="Zhao Zhong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhao Zhong</a> (d. 189 CE) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Rong" rel="nofollow" title="Zhang Rong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhang Rong</a> (d. 189 CE) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_roleplay" rel="nofollow" title="Sexual roleplay" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">roleplaying</a> with concubines and participating in military parades.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-71" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-71" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">72</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-71" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-End-of-the-Han" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>End of the Han</h3>The partisan prohibitions were repealed during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" rel="nofollow" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" rel="nofollow" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion</a> in 184 CE, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_occupations" rel="nofollow" title="Four occupations" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">gentry class</a> who might otherwise join the rebellions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_511-72" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[73]</a> The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoism" rel="nofollow" title="Daoism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Daoist</a> religious societies led by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_healing" rel="nofollow" title="Faith healing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">faith healers</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Jiao" rel="nofollow" title="Zhang Jiao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhang Jiao</a> (d. 184 CE) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Lu" rel="nofollow" title="Zhang Lu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhang Lu</a> (d. 216 CE), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in modern northern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan" rel="nofollow" title="Sichuan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sichuan</a> and southern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanxi" rel="nofollow" title="Shanxi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shanxi</a>, was not quelled until 215 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1986_628_629-73" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[74]</a> Zhang Jiao's massive rebellion across eight <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Provincial_authorities" rel="nofollow" title="Government of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">provinces</a> was annihilated by Han forces within a year, however the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-74" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[75]</a> Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia" rel="nofollow" title="Militia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">militia</a> forces and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-75" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[76]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">General-in-Chief <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He_Jin" rel="nofollow" title="He Jin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">He Jin</a> (d. 189 CE), half-brother to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_He_(Ling)" rel="nofollow" title="Empress He (Ling)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Empress He</a> (d. 189 CE), plotted with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shao" rel="nofollow" title="Yuan Shao" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yuan Shao</a> (d. 202 CE) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-77" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[78]</a> After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao (何苗) rescind the order.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-78" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[79]</a> The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on September 22, 189 CE. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shu" rel="nofollow" title="Yuan Shu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yuan Shu</a> (d. 199 CE) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-79" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[80]</a> Zhang Rang had previously fled with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Hongnong" rel="nofollow" title="Prince of Hongnong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Shao</a> (r. 189 CE) and his brother Liu Xie—the future <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Xian of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Xian of Han</a> (r. 189–220 CE). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-80" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[81]</a></div>General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Zhuo" rel="nofollow" title="Dong Zhuo" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dong Zhuo</a> (d. 192 CE) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Minister_of_Works" rel="nofollow" title="Government of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Minister of Works</a>, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-81" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[82]</a> After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 CE. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-82" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[83]</a> Dong was killed by his adopted son <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu" rel="nofollow" title="Lü Bu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lü Bu</a> (d. 198 CE) in a plot hatched by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yun" rel="nofollow" title="Wang Yun" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wang Yun</a> (d. 192 CE).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-83" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[84]</a> Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 CE to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Cao" rel="nofollow" title="Cao Cao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cao Cao</a> (155–220 CE), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong" rel="nofollow" title="Shandong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shandong</a> and eastern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henan" rel="nofollow" title="Henan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Henan</a>, to move the capital to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuchang" rel="nofollow" title="Xuchang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xuchang</a> in 196 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-84" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[85]</a>Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Guandu" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Guandu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Guandu</a> in 200 CE. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Tan" rel="nofollow" title="Yuan Tan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yuan Tan</a> (173–205 CE), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-beck_1986_351_352_crespigny_2007_36_37-85" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[86]</a> His brothers <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shang" rel="nofollow" title="Yuan Shang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yuan Shang</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Xi" rel="nofollow" title="Yuan Xi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yuan Xi</a> were killed in 207 CE by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongsun_Kang" rel="nofollow" title="Gongsun Kang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gongsun Kang</a> (d. 221 CE), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-beck_1986_351_352_crespigny_2007_36_37-85" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[86]</a>After Cao's defeat at the naval <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" rel="nofollow" title="Battle of Red Cliffs" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Battle of Red Cliffs</a> in 208 CE, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Quan" rel="nofollow" title="Sun Quan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sun Quan</a> (182–252 CE) dominating the south, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bei" rel="nofollow" title="Liu Bei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu Bei</a> (161–223 CE) dominating the west.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-86" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[87]</a> Cao Cao died in March 220 CE. By December his son <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Pi" rel="nofollow" title="Cao Pi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cao Pi</a> (187–226 CE) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Pi" rel="nofollow" title="Cao Pi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Wen of Wei</a>. This formally ended the Han Dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" rel="nofollow" title="Three Kingdoms" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">three states</a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Wei" rel="nofollow" title="Cao Wei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cao Wei</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Wu" rel="nofollow" title="Eastern Wu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Eastern Wu</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Shu Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shu Han</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-87" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-87" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">88</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-87" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h2 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 4px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: normal; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 19px; "><a name="TOC-Society-and-culture" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Society and culture</h2><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Social-class" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Social class</h3>In the hierarchical social order, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">emperor</a> was at the apex of Han society and government. However the emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent" rel="nofollow" title="Regent" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">regent</a> such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_dowager" rel="nofollow" title="Empress dowager" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">empress dowager</a> or one of her male relatives.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-88" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[89]</a> Ranked immediately below the emperor were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Kings of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">the kings</a> who were of the same <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu" rel="nofollow" title="Liu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu</a> family clan.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-89" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[90]</a> The rest of society, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_nobility" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese nobility" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">nobles</a> lower than kings and all commoners excluding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave" rel="nofollow" title="Slave" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">slaves</a> belonged to one of twenty ranks (ershi gongcheng 二十公乘).Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquess" rel="nofollow" title="Marquess" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">marquess</a>, came with a state pension and a territorial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fief" rel="nofollow" title="Fief" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">fiefdom</a>. Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-91" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[92]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrat" rel="nofollow" title="Scholar-bureaucrat" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Officials</a> who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeoffment" rel="nofollow" title="Enfeoffment" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">enfeoffed</a> as marquesses.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-chu_1972_84-92" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[93]</a> By the Eastern Han period, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a larger, nationwide <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentry_(China)" rel="nofollow" title="Gentry (China)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">gentry class</a> with shared similar values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-93" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[94]</a> When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentrymen even considered the cultivation of morally-grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-94" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[95]</a>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer" rel="nofollow" title="Farmer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">farmer</a>, or specifically the small landowner-cultivator, was ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leasehold_estate" rel="nofollow" title="Leasehold estate" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">tenants</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_labor" rel="nofollow" title="Day labor" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">wage laborers</a>, and in rare cases slaves.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-95" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[96]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan" rel="nofollow" title="Artisan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Artisans</a> and craftsmen had a legal and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" rel="nofollow" title="Socioeconomic status" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">socioeconomic status</a> between that of owner-cultivator farmers and common <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchant" rel="nofollow" title="Merchant" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">merchants</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-96" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[97]</a> State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-colored clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-97" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[98]</a> These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as industrialists and itinerant traders working between a network of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of government officials.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-98" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[99]</a> Wealthy landowners, such as nobles and officials, often provided lodging for retainers who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes including fighting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves, retainers could come and go from their master's home as they pleased.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-99" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[100]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" rel="nofollow" title="Traditional Chinese medicine" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Medical physicians</a>, pig breeders, and butchers had a fairly high social status, while <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination" rel="nofollow" title="Divination" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">occultist diviners</a>, runners, and messengers had low status.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-100" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-100" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">101</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-100" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Marriage-gender-and-kinship" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Marriage, gender, and kinship</h3>The Han-era family was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrilineality" rel="nofollow" title="Patrilineality" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">patrilineal</a> and typically had four to five <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_family" rel="nofollow" title="Nuclear family" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">nuclear family</a> members living in one household. Multiple generations of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_family" rel="nofollow" title="Extended family" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">extended family</a> members did not occupy the same house, unlike families of later dynasties.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-101" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[102]</a> According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" rel="nofollow" title="Confucianism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Confucian family norms</a>, various family members were treated with different levels of respect and intimacy. For example, there were different accepted time frames for mourning the death of a father versus a paternal uncle.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-102" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[103]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriage" rel="nofollow" title="Arranged marriage" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Arranged marriages</a> were the norm, with the father's input on his offspring's spouse being considered more important than the mother's.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-103" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[104]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamy" rel="nofollow" title="Monogamy" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Monogamous marriages</a> were also the norm, although nobles and high officials were wealthy enough to afford and support <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubine" rel="nofollow" title="Concubine" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">concubines</a> as additional lovers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-104" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-104" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">105</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-104" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a> Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce" rel="nofollow" title="Divorce" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">divorce</a> their spouses and remarry.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-105" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[106]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance" rel="nofollow" title="Inheritance" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">inheritance</a> practices did not involve <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primogeniture" rel="nofollow" title="Primogeniture" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">primogeniture</a>; each son received an equal share of the family property.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-106" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[107]</a> Since the father usually sent his adult married sons away with a portion of the family fortune, unlike later dynasties, sons did not always receive their inheritance after the death of their father.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-107" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[108]</a> Daughters were not formally included in a father's will, although they did receive a portion of the family fortune through their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowry" rel="nofollow" title="Dowry" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">marriage dowries</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-108" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[109]</a></div>Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age. However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and brothers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-109" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[110]</a> Women were exempt from the annual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" rel="nofollow" title="Corvée" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">corvée</a> labor duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-110" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[111]</a>The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, sale at market or for large textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women. Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became singers, dancers, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchcraft" rel="nofollow" title="Witchcraft" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">sorceresses</a>, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants who could afford their own silk clothes.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-111" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[112]</a> Some women formed spinning collectives, aggregating the resources of several different families.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-hinsch_2002_29-112" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-hinsch_2002_29-112" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">113</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-hinsch_2002_29-112" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Education-literature-and-philosophy" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Education, literature, and philosophy</h3>The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" rel="nofollow" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Legalism</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangdi_Sijing" rel="nofollow" title="Huangdi Sijing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huang-Lao Daoism</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" rel="nofollow" title="Confucianism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Confucianism</a> in making state decisions and shaping government policy.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-114" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[115]</a> However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. He abolished all academic chairs or erudites (boshi 博士) not dealing with the Confucian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Classics" rel="nofollow" title="Five Classics" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Five Classics</a> in 136 BCE and encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian-based education at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taixue" rel="nofollow" title="Taixue" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Imperial University</a> that he established in 124 BCE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-115" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[116]</a> Unlike the original ideology espoused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" rel="nofollow" title="Confucius" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Confucius</a>, or Kongzi (551–479 BCE), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the creation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" rel="nofollow" title="Dong Zhongshu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dong Zhongshu</a> (179–104 BCE). Dong Zhongshu was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_(Confucian)" rel="nofollow" title="Li (Confucian)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">ritual</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety" rel="nofollow" title="Filial piety" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">filial piety</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" rel="nofollow" title="Ren (Confucianism)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">harmonious relationships</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Xing" rel="nofollow" title="Wu Xing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">five phases</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang" rel="nofollow" title="Yin and yang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">yin-yang</a> cosmologies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-116" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[117]</a> Much to the interest of the ruler, Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-117" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[118]</a> The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-118" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[119]</a> A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_school" rel="nofollow" title="Private school" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">private schools</a> opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuition" rel="nofollow" title="Tuition" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">tuition</a> payments.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-119" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[120]</a>Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophical works written by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Xiong_(author)" rel="nofollow" title="Yang Xiong (author)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Yang Xiong</a> (53 BCE–18 CE), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huan_Tan" rel="nofollow" title="Huan Tan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huan Tan</a> (43 BCE–28 CE), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Chong" rel="nofollow" title="Wang Chong" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wang Chong</a> (27–100 CE), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Fu_(philosopher)" rel="nofollow" title="Wang Fu (philosopher)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Wang Fu</a> (78–163 CE) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-120" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[121]</a> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiji" rel="nofollow" title="Shiji" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Records of the Grand Historian</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Tan" rel="nofollow" title="Sima Tan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sima Tan</a> (d. 110 BCE) and his son <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Qian" rel="nofollow" title="Sima Qian" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sima Qian</a> (145–86 BCE) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_historiography" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese historiography" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">established the standard model</a> for all of imperial China's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" rel="nofollow" title="Twenty-Four Histories" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Standard Histories</a>, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Book of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Book of Han</a> written by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban_Biao" rel="nofollow" title="Ban Biao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ban Biao</a> (3–54 CE), his son <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban_Gu" rel="nofollow" title="Ban Gu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ban Gu</a> (32–92 CE), and his daughter <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban_Zhao" rel="nofollow" title="Ban Zhao" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Ban Zhao</a> (45–116 CE).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-121" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[122]</a> There were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_dictionaries" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese dictionaries" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">dictionaries</a>such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" rel="nofollow" title="Shuowen Jiezi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shuowen Jiezi</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu_Shen" rel="nofollow" title="Xu Shen" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xu Shen</a> (c. 58–c. 147 CE) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangyan" rel="nofollow" title="Fangyan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Fangyan</a> by Yang Xiong.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-122" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[123]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography" rel="nofollow" title="Biography" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Biographies</a> on important figures were written by various gentrymen. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-123" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[124]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_poetry" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese poetry" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Poems</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu_(literature)" rel="nofollow" title="Fu (literature)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">rhapsodies</a> were popular forms of literature amongst the gentry.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-124" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-124" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">125</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-124" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Law-and-order" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Law and order</h3>Han scholars such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jia_Yi" rel="nofollow" title="Jia Yi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Jia Yi</a> (201–169 BCE) portrayed the previous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Qin Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qin Dynasty</a> as a brutal regime. However, archaeological evidence from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiashan_Han_bamboo_texts" rel="nofollow" title="Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhangjiashan</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuihudi_Qin_bamboo_texts" rel="nofollow" title="Shuihudi Qin bamboo texts" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shuihudi</a> reveal that many of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute" rel="nofollow" title="Statute" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">statutes</a> in the Han <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_(law)" rel="nofollow" title="Code (law)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">law code</a> compiled by Chancellor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiao_He" rel="nofollow" title="Xiao He" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Xiao He</a> (d. 193 BCE) were derived from Qin law.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-125" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[126]</a>Various cases for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape" rel="nofollow" title="Rape" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">rape</a>, physical abuse and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder" rel="nofollow" title="Murder" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">murder</a> were prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having less rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and criminal charges against men.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-126" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[127]</a> While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly monetary fines, periods of forced hard labor for convicts, and the penalty of death by beheading.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-127" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[128]</a> Early Han punishments of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture" rel="nofollow" title="Torture" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">torturous</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilation" rel="nofollow" title="Mutilation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">mutilation</a> were borrowed from Qin law. A series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with progressively less-severe beatings by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastinado" rel="nofollow" title="Bastinado" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bastinado</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-128" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[129]</a>Acting as a judge in lawsuits was one of many duties of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistrate" rel="nofollow" title="Magistrate" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Magistrates</a> of counties and Administrators of commanderies. Complex, high profile or unresolved cases were often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or even the emperor.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-129" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[130]</a> In each Han county was several districts, each overseen by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_police" rel="nofollow" title="Chief of police" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">chief of police</a>. Order in the cities was maintained by government officers in the marketplaces and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constable" rel="nofollow" title="Constable" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">constables</a> in the neighborhoods.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-130" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-130" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">131</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-130" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Cuisine" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Cuisine</h3>The most common staple crops consumed during Han were wheat, barley, rice, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtail_millet" rel="nofollow" title="Foxtail millet" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">foxtail millet</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proso_millet" rel="nofollow" title="Proso millet" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">proso millet</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean" rel="nofollow" title="Bean" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">beans</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-131" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[132]</a> Commonly-eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_bayberry" rel="nofollow" title="Red bayberry" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">red bayberries</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jujube" rel="nofollow" title="Jujube" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">jujubes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabash" rel="nofollow" title="Calabash" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">calabash</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_shoot" rel="nofollow" title="Bamboo shoot" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bamboo shoots</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_plant" rel="nofollow" title="Mustard plant" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">mustard plant</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taro" rel="nofollow" title="Taro" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">taro</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-132" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[133]</a> Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_duck" rel="nofollow" title="Mandarin duck" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Mandarin ducks</a>, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels and dogs. Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly-hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sika_deer" rel="nofollow" title="Sika deer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">sika deer</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Bamboo_Partridge" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese Bamboo Partridge" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chinese Bamboo Partridge</a> were consumed.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-133" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[134]</a> Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_sauce" rel="nofollow" title="Soy sauce" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">soy sauce</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-134" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[135]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_alcoholic_beverages" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese alcoholic beverages" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Beer and wine</a> were regularly consumed.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-135" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-135" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">136</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-135" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Clothing" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Clothing</h3>The types of clothing worn and the materials used during the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk could afford <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk" rel="nofollow" title="Silk" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">silk</a> robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_clothing" rel="nofollow" title="Fur clothing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">badger or fox fur</a>, duck plumes, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slippers" rel="nofollow" title="Slippers" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">slippers</a> with inlaid leather, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl" rel="nofollow" title="Pearl" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">pearls</a>, and silk lining. Peasants commonly wore clothes made of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp" rel="nofollow" title="Hemp" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">hemp</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool" rel="nofollow" title="Wool" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">wool</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferret" rel="nofollow" title="Ferret" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">ferret</a> skins.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-136" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-136" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">137</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-136" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Religion-cosmology-and-metaphysics" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics</h3>Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and foodstuffs to deities, spirits, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestor_worship" rel="nofollow" title="Ancestor worship" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">ancestors</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_(Chinese)" rel="nofollow" title="Temple (Chinese)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">temples and shrines</a>, in the belief that these items could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-137" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[138]</a> It was thought that each person had a two-part soul: the spirit-soul (hun 魂) which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" rel="nofollow" title="Xian (Taoism)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">xian</a>), and the body-soul (po 魄) which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-138" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[139]</a> In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian" rel="nofollow" title="Tian" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Heaven</a>, the main deities known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" rel="nofollow" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Five Powers</a>, and the spirits (shen 神) of mountains and rivers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-139" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[140]</a> It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang" rel="nofollow" title="Yin and yang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">yin and yang</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Xing" rel="nofollow" title="Wu Xing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">five phases</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-140" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[141]</a> If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-141" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[142]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">It was believed that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality" rel="nofollow" title="Immortality" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">immortality</a> could be achieved if one reached the lands of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" rel="nofollow" title="Queen Mother of the West" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Queen Mother of the West</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Penglai" rel="nofollow" title="Mount Penglai" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Mount Penglai</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-142" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[143]</a> Han-era <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoism" rel="nofollow" title="Daoism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Daoists</a> assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques and use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elixir_of_life" rel="nofollow" title="Elixir of life" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">medical elixirs</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-143" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[144]</a> By the 2nd century CE, Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" rel="nofollow" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</a>. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi" rel="nofollow" title="Laozi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Laozi</a> (fl. 6th century BCE) was a holy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet" rel="nofollow" title="Prophet" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">prophet</a> who would offer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation" rel="nofollow" title="Salvation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">salvation</a> and good health if his devout followers would <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession" rel="nofollow" title="Confession" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">confess their sins</a>, ban the worship of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unclean" rel="nofollow" title="Unclean" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">unclean</a> gods who accepted meat sacrifices and chant sections of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" rel="nofollow" title="Tao Te Ching" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Daodejing</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-144" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[145]</a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" rel="nofollow" title="Buddhism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Buddhism</a> first entered China during the Eastern Han and was first mentioned in 65 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-needham_1972_112-145" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[146]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Ying" rel="nofollow" title="Liu Ying" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liu Ying</a> (d. 71 CE), a half-brother to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Ming of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Ming of Han</a> (r. 57–75 CE), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese Buddhism" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chinese Buddhism</a> at this point was heavily associated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Competing_ideologies" rel="nofollow" title="Society and culture of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huang-Lao Daoism</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-demieville_1986_821_822-146" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[147]</a> China's first known Buddhist temple, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Horse_Temple" rel="nofollow" title="White Horse Temple" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">White Horse Temple</a>, was erected during Ming's reign.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-147" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[148]</a> Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century CE, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra_of_Forty-two_Chapters" rel="nofollow" title="Sutra of Forty-two Chapters" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sutra of Forty-two Chapters</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfection_of_Wisdom" rel="nofollow" title="Perfection of Wisdom" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Perfection of Wisdom</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shurangama_Sutra" rel="nofollow" title="Shurangama Sutra" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Shurangama Sutra</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sutra" rel="nofollow" title="Pratyutpanna Sutra" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Pratyutpanna Sutra</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-148" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-148" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">149</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-148" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h2 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 4px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: normal; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 19px; "><a name="TOC-Government" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Government</h2><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Central-government" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Central government</h3>In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Salaries" rel="nofollow" title="Government of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">600-shi salary-rank or higher</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_1216-150" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[151]</a> Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi 廷議)—where ministers were convened to reach <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" rel="nofollow" title="Consensus decision-making" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">majority consensus</a> on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-151" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[152]</a> If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-152" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[153]</a>Below the emperor were his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_(government)" rel="nofollow" title="Cabinet (government)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cabinet</a> members known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Excellencies" rel="nofollow" title="Three Excellencies" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Three Excellencies</a>. These were the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Chancellor of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Chancellor</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_over_the_Masses" rel="nofollow" title="Minister over the Masses" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Minister over the Masses</a>, Imperial Counselor/Excellency of Works, and Grand Commandant/Grand Marshal.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-153" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[154]</a>The Chancellor, whose title was changed to Minister over the Masses in 8 BCE, was chiefly responsible for drafting the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_budget" rel="nofollow" title="Government budget" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">government budget</a>. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600-shi.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-154" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[155]</a>The Imperial Counselor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Excellency of Works in 8 BCE, his chief duty became oversight of public works projects.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-155" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[156]</a>The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119 BCE before reverting back to Grand Commandant in 51 CE, was the irregularly-posted commander of the military and then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent" rel="nofollow" title="Regent" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">regent</a> during Western Han. In Eastern Han he was chiefly a civil official who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Excellencies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-156" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[157]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">Ranked below the Three Excellencies were the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Ministers" rel="nofollow" title="Nine Ministers" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Nine Ministers</a>, who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-157" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[158]</a> The Minister of the Household was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-158" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[159]</a> The Minister of the Guards was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-159" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[160]</a> The Minister Coachman was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-160" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[161]</a> The Minister of Justice was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-161" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[162]</a> The Minister Herald was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Imperial_China" rel="nofollow" title="Foreign relations of Imperial China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">foreign ambassadors</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-162" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[163]</a> The Minister of the Imperial Clan oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-163" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[164]</a> The Minister of Finance was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer" rel="nofollow" title="Treasurer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">treasurer</a> for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_measurement" rel="nofollow" title="Units of measurement" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">units of measurement</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-164" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[165]</a> The Minister Steward served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-165" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-165" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">166</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-165" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a></div><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Local-government" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Local government</h3>In descending order of size, the Han Empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided into political units of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" rel="nofollow" title="Zhou (country subdivision)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">provinces</a> (zhou), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandery" rel="nofollow" title="Commandery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">commanderies</a> (jun), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_(China)" rel="nofollow" title="County (China)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">counties</a> (xian).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_1228-168" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[169]</a> A county was divided into several <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_(China)" rel="nofollow" title="District (China)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">districts</a>, the latter composed of a group of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet_(place)" rel="nofollow" title="Hamlet (place)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">hamlets</a>, each containing about a hundred families.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-169" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[170]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-170" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[171]</a>The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-171" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-171" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">172</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-171" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a> Based on their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be promoted, demoted, dismissed or prosecuted by the imperial court.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-172" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[173]</a>A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_1228-168" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[169]</a>A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an Administrator.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-de_Crespigny_2007_1228-168" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[169]</a> He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-173" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[174]</a> The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called Chiefs, and both could be referred to as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistrate" rel="nofollow" title="Magistrate" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Magistrates</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-174" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[175]</a> A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" rel="nofollow" title="Corvée" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">corvée</a> duties, repaired schools and supervised public works.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_100-175" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_100-175" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">176</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_100-175" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Kingdoms-and-marquessates" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Kingdoms and marquessates</h3>Kingdoms—roughly the size of commanderies—were ruled exclusively by the emperor's male relatives as semi-autonomous fiefs. Before 157 BCE some kingdoms were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-176" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[177]</a> Although the emperor appointed the Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the remaining civil officials in their fiefs.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-177" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[178]</a>However, in 145 BCE, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Salaries" rel="nofollow" title="Government of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">salaries higher than 400-shi</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_105_106-178" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[179]</a> The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-bielenstein_1980_105_106-178" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[179]</a>With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-chu_1972_76-179" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[180]</a> Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's Chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county Prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-180" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[181]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Military" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Military</h3>At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription" rel="nofollow" title="Conscription" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">conscription</a> into the military. The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Zhao_of_Han" rel="nofollow" title="Emperor Zhao of Han" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Emperor Zhao's</a> (r. 87–74 BCE) reign.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-181" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[182]</a> Conscripts underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was served in one of three branches of the armed forces: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry" rel="nofollow" title="Infantry" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">infantry</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry" rel="nofollow" title="Cavalry" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cavalry</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy" rel="nofollow" title="Navy" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">navy</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-182" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[183]</a> The year of active service was served either on their frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-183" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[184]</a>During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer_army" rel="nofollow" title="Volunteer army" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">volunteer army</a> of non-professional soldiers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-184" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[185]</a> The latter comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the smaller professional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_army" rel="nofollow" title="Standing army" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">standing army</a>, stationed in the capital, was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-185" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[186]</a> Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each with approximately 750 soldiers and 150 junior officers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-186" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[187]</a> When central authority collapsed after 189 CE, wealthy landowners and regional warlords relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops (buqu 部曲).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-187" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[188]</a>During times of war, a much larger <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia" rel="nofollow" title="Militia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">militia</a> was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a General (Jiangjun 將軍) led a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(military)" rel="nofollow" title="Division (military)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">division</a>, which was divided into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiment" rel="nofollow" title="Regiment" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">regiments</a> led by Colonels and sometimes Majors (Sima 司馬). Regiments were divided into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_(military_unit)" rel="nofollow" title="Company (military unit)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">companies</a> and led by Captains. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platoon" rel="nofollow" title="Platoon" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Platoons</a> were the smallest units of soldiers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-188" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-188" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">189</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-188" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h2 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 4px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: normal; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 19px; "><a name="TOC-Economics" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Economics</h2><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Variations-in-currency" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Variations in currency</h3>In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mint_(coin)" rel="nofollow" title="Mint (coin)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">government mint</a> in favor of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BCE by his widow <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_L%C3%BC_Zhi" rel="nofollow" title="Empress Lü Zhi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi</a> (d. 180 BCE), who abolished private minting.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_586-189" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[190]</a> In 182 BCE, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation" rel="nofollow" title="Inflation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">inflation</a> that was not reduced until 175 BCE when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_586-189" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[190]</a>In 144 BCE Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_586_587-190" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[191]</a> Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BCE but replaced this a year later with the wushu (五銖) coin weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_587-191" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[192]</a> The wushu became China's standard coin until the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Tang Dynasty" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907 CE). Its use was interrupted briefly by a range of new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-192" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[193]</a>Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BCE. This central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Superintendent_of_Waterways_and_Parks" rel="nofollow" title="Government of the Han Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Superintendent of Waterways and Parks</a>, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-193" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-193" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">194</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-193" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Taxation-and-property" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Taxation and property</h3>Aside from the landowner's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_value_tax#History" rel="nofollow" title="Land value tax" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">land tax</a> paid in a portion of their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_yield" rel="nofollow" title="Crop yield" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">crop yield</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll_tax" rel="nofollow" title="Poll tax" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">poll tax</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_tax" rel="nofollow" title="Property tax" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">property taxes</a> were paid in coin cash.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_600_601-194" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[195]</a> The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-195" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[196]</a> The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BCE to 5 CE, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-196" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: underline; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-196" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: underline; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">197</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-196" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: underline; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">]</a>The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-199" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[200]</a> Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of land.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-200" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[201]</a>The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landlord" rel="nofollow" title="Landlord" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">landlords</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-201" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[202]</a> The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuntian" rel="nofollow" title="Tuntian" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">agricultural colonies</a> until they could recover from their debts.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-202" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[203]</a>In 168 BCE, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-203" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[204]</a> and later to a one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-204" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[205]</a>The labor tax took the form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription" rel="nofollow" title="Conscription" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">conscripted labor</a> for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became more popular.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-205" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-205" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">206</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-205" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Private-manufacture-and-government-" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Private manufacture and government monopolies</h3>In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury" rel="nofollow" title="Treasury" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">treasury</a> and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-206" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[207]</a> To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BCE and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the monopolies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-207" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[208]</a> By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-208" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[209]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquor" rel="nofollow" title="Liquor" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Liquor</a> was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BCE. However, this was repealed in 81 BCE and a property tax rate of 2 coins for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who traded it privately.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-209" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[210]</a> By 110 BCE Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculation" rel="nofollow" title="Speculation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">speculation</a> by selling government-stored grain at a lower price than demanded by merchants.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1999_75-210" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1999_75-210" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">211</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1999_75-210" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a> Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 CE, central government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-211" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-211" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">212</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-211" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h2 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 4px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: normal; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 19px; "><a name="TOC-Science-technology-and-engineering" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Science, technology, and engineering</h2>The Han Dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_of_the_Song_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Technology of the Song Dynasty" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">scientific and technological growth</a> during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Song Dynasty" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Song Dynasty</a> (960–1279).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-212" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-212" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">213</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-212" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Writing-materials" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Writing materials</h3>Typical ancient Chinese writing materials were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bronzewares</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" rel="nofollow" title="Oracle bone script" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">animal bones</a>. By the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk cloth, and rolled scrolls made from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo" rel="nofollow" title="Bamboo" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bamboo</a> strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-213" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[214]</a>The oldest known Chinese piece of hard, hempen <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrapping_paper" rel="nofollow" title="Wrapping paper" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">wrapping paper</a> dates to the 2nd century BCE. The standard <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papermaking" rel="nofollow" title="Papermaking" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">papermaking</a> process was invented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cai_Lun" rel="nofollow" title="Cai Lun" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Cai Lun</a> (50–121 CE) in 105 CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-214" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[215]</a> The oldest known surviving piece of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper" rel="nofollow" title="Paper" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">paper</a> with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchtower" rel="nofollow" title="Watchtower" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">watchtower</a> that had been abandoned in 110 CE, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" rel="nofollow" title="Inner Mongolia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Inner Mongolia</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-215" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-215" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">216</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-215" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Metallurgy-and-agriculture" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Metallurgy and agriculture</h3>Evidence suggests that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace" rel="nofollow" title="Blast furnace" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">blast furnaces</a>, that convert raw <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_ore" rel="nofollow" title="Iron ore" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">iron ore</a> into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron" rel="nofollow" title="Pig iron" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">pig iron</a>, which can be remelted in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupola_furnace" rel="nofollow" title="Cupola furnace" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cupola furnace</a> to produce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron" rel="nofollow" title="Cast iron" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cast iron</a> by means of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_blast" rel="nofollow" title="Cold blast" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cold blast</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_blast" rel="nofollow" title="Hot blast" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">hot blast</a>, were operational in China by the late <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Period" rel="nofollow" title="Spring and Autumn Period" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Spring and Autumn Period</a> (722–481 BCE).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-216" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[217]</a> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomery" rel="nofollow" title="Bloomery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bloomery</a> was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron" rel="nofollow" title="Wrought iron" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">wrought iron</a> by injecting excess <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" rel="nofollow" title="Oxygen" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">oxygen</a> into a furnace and causing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decarburization" rel="nofollow" title="Decarburization" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">decarburization</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-217" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[218]</a> Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel" rel="nofollow" title="Steel" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">steel</a> using the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finery_forge" rel="nofollow" title="Finery forge" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">finery forge</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" rel="nofollow" title="Puddling (metallurgy)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">puddling process</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-218" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[219]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">The Han-era Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-219" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[220]</a> A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_drill" rel="nofollow" title="Seed drill" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">seed drill</a>, invented by the 2nd century BCE, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowing" rel="nofollow" title="Sowing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">casting seeds out by hand</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-220" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[221]</a> The heavy moldboard iron <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plow" rel="nofollow" title="Plow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">plow</a>, also invented during the Han Dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plowshare" rel="nofollow" title="Plowshare" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">plowshares</a>, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-221" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[222]</a></div>To protect crops from wind and drought, the Grain Intendant Zhao Guo (趙過) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa 代田法) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_and_furrow" rel="nofollow" title="Ridge and furrow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">furrows and ridges</a> between growing seasons.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_561_563-222" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[223]</a> Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-nishijima_1986_561_563-222" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[223]</a> Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian 凹田) for growing crops, which involved heavily-fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-223" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[224]</a> In southern and small parts of central Han-era China, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy_field" rel="nofollow" title="Paddy field" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">paddy fields</a> were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huai_River" rel="nofollow" title="Huai River" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huai River</a> used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplanting" rel="nofollow" title="Transplanting" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">transplantation</a> methods of rice production.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-224" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-224" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">225</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-224" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Structural-engineering" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Structural engineering</h3><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber" rel="nofollow" title="Timber" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Timber</a> was the chief building material during the Han Dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multiple-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1999_76-226" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[227]</a> Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-227" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[228]</a> The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Tang Dynasty" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-228" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[229]</a>Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammed_earth" rel="nofollow" title="Rammed earth" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">rammed earth</a> remain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese city wall" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">city walls</a>, rammed-earth and brick <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon" rel="nofollow" title="Beacon" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">beacon</a> towers, rammed-earth sections of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" rel="nofollow" title="Great Wall of China" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Great Wall</a>, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle" rel="nofollow" title="Castle" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">castles</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu" rel="nofollow" title="Gansu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gansu</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crenellation" rel="nofollow" title="Crenellation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">crenellations</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-229" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[230]</a> The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_collection_and_disposal" rel="nofollow" title="Sewage collection and disposal" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">drainage systems</a> of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pipe" rel="nofollow" title="Water pipe" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">water pipes</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-230" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[231]</a> Monumental stone pillar-gates, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-231" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[232]</a> These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balustrades" rel="nofollow" title="Balustrades" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">balustrades</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-232" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-232" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">233</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-232" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a> Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archaeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-233" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[234]</a>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyard_house" rel="nofollow" title="Courtyard house" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">courtyard house</a> is the most common type of home portrayed in Han artwork.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-ebrey_1999_76-226" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[227]</a> Ceramic architectural <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_model" rel="nofollow" title="Architectural model" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">models of buildings</a>, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archaeological sites.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-234" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[235]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">Over ten thousand Han-era underground tombs have been found, many of them featuring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch" rel="nofollow" title="Arch" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">archways</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" rel="nofollow" title="Vault (architecture)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">vaulted</a> chambers, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome" rel="nofollow" title="Dome" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">domed</a> roofs.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-235" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[236]</a> Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-watson_2000_108-236" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[237]</a> The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-watson_2000_108-236" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[237]</a></div>From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_bridge" rel="nofollow" title="Beam bridge" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">beam bridges</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_bridge" rel="nofollow" title="Arch bridge" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">arch bridges</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_suspension_bridge" rel="nofollow" title="Simple suspension bridge" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">simple suspension bridges</a>, and floating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" rel="nofollow" title="Pontoon bridge" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">pontoon bridges</a> existed in Han China.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-237" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[238]</a> However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-238" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[239]</a> and only a single Han relief sculpture in Sichuan depicts an arch bridge.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-239" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[240]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaft_mining" rel="nofollow" title="Shaft mining" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Underground mine shafts</a>, some reaching depths of over 100 meters, or 300 feet, were created for the extraction of metal ores.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-240" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[241]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borehole" rel="nofollow" title="Borehole" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Borehole</a> drilling and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derrick" rel="nofollow" title="Derrick" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">derricks</a> were used to lift <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brine" rel="nofollow" title="Brine" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">brine</a> to iron pans where it was distilled into salt. The distillation furnaces were heated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas" rel="nofollow" title="Natural gas" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">natural gas</a> funneled to the surface through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transport" rel="nofollow" title="Pipeline transport" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bamboo pipelines</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-241" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[242]</a> Dangerous amounts of additional gas were siphoned off via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetor" rel="nofollow" title="Carburetor" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">carburetor</a> chambers and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_pipe" rel="nofollow" title="Exhaust pipe" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">exhaust pipes</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-242" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-242" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">243</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-242" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Mechanical-and-hydraulic-engineerin" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Mechanical and hydraulic engineering</h3>Evidence of Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes disinterested Confucian scholars. Professional artisan-engineers (jiang匠) did not leave behind detailed records of their work.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-243" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[244]</a> Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-244" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[245]</a> Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. For example, in 15 BCE the philosopher Yang Xiong described the invention of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)" rel="nofollow" title="Belt (mechanical)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">belt drive</a> for a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quilling" rel="nofollow" title="Quilling" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">quilling</a> machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-245" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[246]</a> The inventions of the artisan-engineer Ding Huan (丁緩) are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-246" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[247]</a> Around 180 CE, Ding created a manually-operated rotary fan used for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning" rel="nofollow" title="Air conditioning" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">air conditioning</a> within palace buildings.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-247" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[248]</a> Ding also used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimbal" rel="nofollow" title="Gimbal" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">gimbals</a> as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoetrope" rel="nofollow" title="Zoetrope" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">zoetrope</a> lamp.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-248" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[249]</a>Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" rel="nofollow" title="Crank (mechanism)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">crank handle</a> was used to operate the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical)" rel="nofollow" title="Fan (mechanical)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">fans</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnowing" rel="nofollow" title="Winnowing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">winnowing</a> machines that separated grain from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaff" rel="nofollow" title="Chaff" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">chaff</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-249" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[250]</a> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odometer" rel="nofollow" title="Odometer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">odometer</a> cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-250" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[251]</a> This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century CE, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-251" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[252]</a> Modern archaeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han Dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliper" rel="nofollow" title="Caliper" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">calipers</a> used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-252" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[253]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel" rel="nofollow" title="Waterwheel" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">waterwheel</a> appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huan_Tan" rel="nofollow" title="Huan Tan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Huan Tan</a> in about 20 CE, they were used to turn gears that lifted iron <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trip_hammer" rel="nofollow" title="Trip hammer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">trip hammers</a>, and were used in pounding, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing" rel="nofollow" title="Threshing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">threshing</a> and polishing grain.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-253" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[254]</a> However, there is no sufficient evidence for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermill" rel="nofollow" title="Watermill" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">watermill</a> in China until about the 5th century.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-254" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[255]</a> The Nanyang Commandery Administrator <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_Shi" rel="nofollow" title="Du Shi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Du Shi</a> (d. 38 CE) created a waterwheel-powered <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_motion" rel="nofollow" title="Reciprocating motion" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">reciprocator</a> that worked the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows" rel="nofollow" title="Bellows" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bellows</a> for the smelting of iron.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-255" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[256]</a> Waterwheels were also used to power <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_pump" rel="nofollow" title="Chain pump" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">chain pumps</a> that lifted water to raised <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation" rel="nofollow" title="Irrigation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">irrigation</a> ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century-CE <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunheng" rel="nofollow" title="Lunheng" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Balanced Discourse</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-256" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[257]</a></div>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" rel="nofollow" title="Armillary sphere" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">armillary sphere</a>, a three-dimensional representation of the movements in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere" rel="nofollow" title="Celestial sphere" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">celestial sphere</a>, was invented in Han China by the 1st century BCE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-257" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[258]</a> Using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock" rel="nofollow" title="Water clock" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">water clock</a>, waterwheel and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Heng" rel="nofollow" title="Zhang Heng" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhang Heng</a> (78–139 CE) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-258" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[259]</a> To address the problem of slowed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timekeeping" rel="nofollow" title="Timekeeping" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">timekeeping</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_head" rel="nofollow" title="Pressure head" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">pressure head</a> of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-259" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[260]</a> Zhang also invented a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismometer" rel="nofollow" title="Seismometer" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">seismometer</a> (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪) in 132 CE to detect the exact <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_direction" rel="nofollow" title="Cardinal direction" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cardinal</a> or ordinal direction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" rel="nofollow" title="Earthquake" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">earthquakes</a> from hundreds of kilometers away.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-260" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[261]</a> This employed an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_pendulum" rel="nofollow" title="Inverted pendulum" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">inverted pendulum</a> that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-261" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-261" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">262</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-261" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Mathematics" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Mathematics</h3>Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_on_Numbers_and_Computation" rel="nofollow" title="Book on Numbers and Computation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Book on Numbers and Computation</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Bi_Suan_Jing" rel="nofollow" title="Zhou Bi Suan Jing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art" rel="nofollow" title="Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art</a>. Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle#Types_of_triangles" rel="nofollow" title="Triangle" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">right-angle triangles</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root" rel="nofollow" title="Square root" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">square roots</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root" rel="nofollow" title="Cube root" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cube roots</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" rel="nofollow" title="Matrix (mathematics)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">matrix methods</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-262" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[263]</a> finding more accurate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_computation_of_%CF%80" rel="nofollow" title="Chronology of computation of π" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">approximations for pi</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-263" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[264]</a> providing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof" rel="nofollow" title="Mathematical proof" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">mathematical proof</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" rel="nofollow" title="Pythagorean theorem" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Pythagorean theorem</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-264" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[265]</a> use of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_(mathematics)" rel="nofollow" title="Fraction (mathematics)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">decimal fraction</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-265" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[266]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination" rel="nofollow" title="Gaussian elimination" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gaussian elimination</a> to solve <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations" rel="nofollow" title="System of linear equations" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">linear equations</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-266" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[267]</a> and continued fractions to find the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_(mathematics)" rel="nofollow" title="Root (mathematics)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">roots of equations</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-267" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[268]</a>One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_and_non-negative_numbers" rel="nofollow" title="Negative and non-negative numbers" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">negative numbers</a>. Negative numbers first appeared in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art as black <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting_rods" rel="nofollow" title="Counting rods" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">counting rods</a>, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-268" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[269]</a> Negative numbers are used in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_manuscript" rel="nofollow" title="Bakhshali manuscript" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Bakhshali manuscript</a> of ancient India, but its exact date of compilation is unknown.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-269" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[270]</a> Negative numbers were also used by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece" rel="nofollow" title="Greece" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Greek</a> mathematician <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus" rel="nofollow" title="Diophantus" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Diophantus</a> in about 275 CE, but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-temple_1986_141-270" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[271]</a><div style="text-align: left; ">The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_tuning" rel="nofollow" title="Musical tuning" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">musical tuning</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jing_Fang" rel="nofollow" title="Jing Fang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Jing Fang</a> (78–37 BCE) realized that 53 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_fifth" rel="nofollow" title="Perfect fifth" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">perfect fifths</a> was approximate to 31 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave" rel="nofollow" title="Octave" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">octaves</a> while creating a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_scale" rel="nofollow" title="Musical scale" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">musical scale</a> of 60 tones, calculating the difference at 177147⁄176776 (the same value of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53_equal_temperament" rel="nofollow" title="53 equal temperament" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">53 equal temperament</a> discovered by the German mathematician <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Mercator" rel="nofollow" title="Nicholas Mercator" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Nicholas Mercator</a> [1620–1687], i.e. 353/284).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-271" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-271" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">272</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-271" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a></div><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Astronomy" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Astronomy</h3>Mathematics were essential in drafting the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar" rel="nofollow" title="Chinese calendar" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">astronomical calendar</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" rel="nofollow" title="Lunisolar calendar" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">lunisolar calendar</a> that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-272" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[273]</a> Use of the ancient Sifen calendar (古四分历), which measured the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year" rel="nofollow" title="Tropical year" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">tropical year</a> at 3651⁄4 days, was replaced in 104 BCE with the Taichu calendar (太初历) that measured the tropical year at 365385⁄1539 days and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_month" rel="nofollow" title="Lunar month" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">lunar month</a> at 2943⁄81 days.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-273" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[274]</a> However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the Sifen calendar.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-274" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[275]</a>Han Chinese astronomers made <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_catalogue" rel="nofollow" title="Star catalogue" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">star catalogues</a> and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the 12 BCE appearance of the comet now known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_comet" rel="nofollow" title="Halley's comet" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Halley's comet</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-275" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[276]</a>Han-era astronomers adopted a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_model" rel="nofollow" title="Geocentric model" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">geocentric model</a> of the universe, theorizing that it was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere" rel="nofollow" title="Celestial sphere" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">shaped like a sphere</a> surrounding the earth in the center.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-276" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[277]</a> They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight" rel="nofollow" title="Sunlight" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">sunlight</a>, that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" rel="nofollow" title="Lunar eclipse" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">lunar eclipses</a> occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse" rel="nofollow" title="Solar eclipse" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">solar eclipse</a> occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-277" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[278]</a> Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle" rel="nofollow" title="Water cycle" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">water cycle</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation" rel="nofollow" title="Evaporation" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">evaporation</a> of water into clouds.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-278" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-278" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">279</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-278" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Cartography-nautics-and-vehicles" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Cartography, nautics, and vehicles</h3>Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archaeological evidence, show that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography" rel="nofollow" title="Cartography" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cartography</a> existed in China before the Han.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-279" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[280]</a> Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts" rel="nofollow" title="Mawangdui Silk Texts" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Mawangdui Silk Texts</a> in a 2nd-century-BCE tomb.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-280" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[281]</a> The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised-relief_map" rel="nofollow" title="Raised-relief map" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">raised-relief map</a> from rice in the 1st century CE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-temple_1986_179-281" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[282]</a> This date could be revised if the tomb of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" rel="nofollow" title="Qin Shi Huang" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Qin Shi Huang</a> is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to be true.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-temple_1986_179-281" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[282]</a>Although the use of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(map)" rel="nofollow" title="Scale (map)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">graduated scale</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_reference" rel="nofollow" title="Grid reference" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">grid reference</a> for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pei_Xiu" rel="nofollow" title="Pei Xiu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Pei Xiu</a> (224–271 CE), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century CE, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-282" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[283]</a>The Han-era Chinese sailed in a variety of ships differing from those of previous eras, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou_chuan" rel="nofollow" title="Lou chuan" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">tower ship</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_(ship)" rel="nofollow" title="Junk (ship)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">junk design</a> was developed and realized during Han. Junks featured a square-ended <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_(ship)" rel="nofollow" title="Bow (ship)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">bow</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern" rel="nofollow" title="Stern" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">stern</a>, a flat-bottomed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" rel="nofollow" title="Hull (watercraft)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">hull</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" rel="nofollow" title="Carvel (boat building)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">carvel-shaped</a> hull with no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel" rel="nofollow" title="Keel" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">keel</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sternpost" rel="nofollow" title="Sternpost" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">sternpost</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulkhead_(partition)" rel="nofollow" title="Bulkhead (partition)" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">solid transverse bulkheads</a> in the place of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat_building" rel="nofollow" title="Boat building" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">structural ribs</a> found in Western vessels.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-283" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[284]</a> Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder" rel="nofollow" title="Rudder" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">rudder</a> at the stern, in contrast to the simpler <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_oar" rel="nofollow" title="Steering oar" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">steering oar</a> used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the high seas.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-284" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[285]</a>Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelbarrow" rel="nofollow" title="Wheelbarrow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">wheelbarrow</a> was first used in Han China in the 1st century BCE.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-285" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[286]</a> Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer breast strap.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_308_312_319_323-286" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[287]</a> Later, during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Wei" rel="nofollow" title="Northern Wei" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Northern Wei</a> (386–534 CE), the fully-developed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_collar" rel="nofollow" title="Horse collar" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">horse collar</a> was invented.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_308_312_319_323-286" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_308_312_319_323-286" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">287</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_308_312_319_323-286" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h3 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; "><a name="TOC-Medicine" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Medicine</h3>Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological" rel="nofollow" title="Cosmological" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">cosmological</a> cycles of yin and yang and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Xing" rel="nofollow" title="Wu Xing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">five phases</a>. Each <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zang-fu" rel="nofollow" title="Zang-fu" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">organ of the body</a> was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi" rel="nofollow" title="Qi" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">qi</a> or "vital energy" channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-287" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[288]</a> For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-csikszentmihalyi_2006_181_182-288" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[289]</a> To this end, the physician <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Zhongjing" rel="nofollow" title="Zhang Zhongjing" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Zhang Zhongjing</a> (c. 150–c. 219 CE) prescribed regulated diets rich in certain foods that were thought to curb specific illnesses. These are now known to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition_disorder" rel="nofollow" title="Nutrition disorder" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">nutrition disorders</a> caused by the lack of certain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin" rel="nofollow" title="Vitamin" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">vitamins</a> consumed in one's diet.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-289" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[290]</a> Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moxibustion" rel="nofollow" title="Moxibustion" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">moxibustion</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture" rel="nofollow" title="Acupuncture" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">acupuncture</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calisthenics" rel="nofollow" title="Calisthenics" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">calisthenics</a> as methods of maintaining one's health.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-290" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[291]</a> When <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery" rel="nofollow" title="Surgery" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">surgery</a> was performed by the physician <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua_Tuo" rel="nofollow" title="Hua Tuo" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">Hua Tuo</a> (d. 208 CE), he used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia" rel="nofollow" title="Anesthesia" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">anesthesia</a> to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing surgical wounds.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-crespigny_2007_332-291" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-crespigny_2007_332-291" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">292</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_note-crespigny_2007_332-291" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; ">]</a><h2 style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(255, 255, 255); padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-left: 4px; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: normal; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 19px; "><a name="TOC-Notes" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-decoration: underline; "></a>Notes</h2><div style="font-size: 11px; "><ol style="list-style-type: decimal; line-height: 1.5em; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Zhou (2003), 34.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Schaefer (2008), 279.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-ebrey_1999_60_61_2-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1999), 60–61.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-3" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1986), 116–122.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-4" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Davis (2001), 44–46.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-loewe_1986_122_5-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1986), 122.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-6" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 117–119.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-loewe_1986_122_125_7-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-loewe_1986_122_125_7-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">b</a> Loewe (1986), 122–125.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-8" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1986), 139–144.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-bielenstein_1980_106_chu_1972_76_9-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-bielenstein_1980_106_chu_1972_76_9-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">b</a> Bielenstein (1980), 106; Ch'ü (1972), 76.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-bielenstein_1980_105_10-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1980), 105.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-11" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Di Cosmo (2001), 175–189, 196–198; Torday (1997), 80–81; Yü (1986), 387–388.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-torday_1997_75_77_12-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Torday (1997), 75–77.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-13" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Torday (1997), 75 77; Di Cosmo (2001), 190–192.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-14" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1967), 9–10; Morton & Lewis (2005), 52; Di Cosmo (2001), 192–195.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-15" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 388–389; Torday (1997), 77, 82–83; Di Cosmo (2002), 195–196.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-16" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Torday (1997), 83–84; Yü (1986), 389–390.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-17" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 389–390; Di Cosmo (2001), 211–214.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-18" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Torday (1997), 91–92</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-19" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 390; Di Cosmo (2001), 237–240.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-20" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1986), 196–197, 211–213; Yü (1986), 395–398.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-21" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1999), 66; Wang (1982), 100.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-22" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Chang (2007), 5–8; Di Cosmo (2002), 241–242; Yü (1986), 391.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-23" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Chang (2007), 34–35.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-24" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Chang (2007), 6, 15–16, 44–45.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-25" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Chang (2007), 15–16, 33–35, 42–43.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-26" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Di Cosmo (2002), 247–249; Morton & Lewis (2005), 54–55; Yü (1986), 407; Ebrey (1999), 69; Torday (1997), 104–117.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-27" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> An (2002), 83; Ebrey (1999), 70.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-28" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Di Cosmo (2002), 250–251; Yü (1986), 390–391, 409–411; Chang (2007), 174; Loewe (1986), 198.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-29" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1999), 83; Yü (1986), 448–453.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-30" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Nishijima (1986), 595–596.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-31" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wagner (2001), 1–17; Loewe (1986), 160–161; Nishijima (1986), 581–588; Ebrey (1999), 75; Morton & Lewis (2005), 57; see also Hinsch (2002), 21–22.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-32" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1986), 162, 185–206; Paludan (1998), 41; Wagner (2001), 16–19.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-33" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 225–226; Huang (1988), 46–48.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-34" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 227–230.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-35" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 23–24; Bielenstein (1986), 230–231; Ebrey (1999), 66.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-36" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 134; Bielenstein (1986), 232–234; Morton & Lewis (2005), 58; Lewis (2007), 23.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-hansen_2000_135_de_Crespigny_2007_196_bielenstein_1986_241_244_37-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-hansen_2000_135_de_Crespigny_2007_196_bielenstein_1986_241_244_37-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">b</a> Hansen (2000), 135; de Crespigny (2007), 196; Bielenstein (1986), 241–244.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-38" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 568; Bielenstein (1986), 248.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-39" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 197, 560; Bielenstein (1986), 249–250.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-40" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 558–560; Bielenstein (1986) 251–254.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-41" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 251–254; de Crespigny (2007), 196–198, 560.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-42" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 54–55, 269–270, 600–601; Bielenstein (1986), 254–255.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-43" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 24–25.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-44" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 450.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-45" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 562, 660; Yü (1986), 454.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-46" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 237–238; Yü (1986), 399–400.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-47" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 413–414.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-48" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 414–415.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-49" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 414–415; de Crespigny (2007), 73.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-50" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 414–415; de Crespigny (2007), 171.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-51" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 405, 443–444.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-52" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 444–446.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-torday_1997_393_de_Crespigny_2007_5_6_53-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-torday_1997_393_de_Crespigny_2007_5_6_53-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">b</a> Torday (1997), 393; de Crespigny (2007), 5–6.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-54" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Yü (1986), 415–416.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-55" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 239–240, 497, 590; Yü (1986), 450–451, 460–461.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-56" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 600; Yü (1986), 460–461.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-57" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Akira (1998), 248, 251; Zhang (2002), 75.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-58" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 497, 500, 592.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-59" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 25; Hansen (2000), 136.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-60" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 280–283; de Crespigny (2007), 499, 588–589.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-61" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 283–284; de Crespigny (2007), 123–127.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-62" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 284; de Crespigny (2007), 128, 580.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-63" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 284–285; de Crespigny (2007), 473–474, 582–583.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-64" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1986), 285–286; de Crespigny (1986), 597–598.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-bower_2005_standing_242_244_65-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bower (2005), "Standing man and woman," 242–244.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-66" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 141.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-67" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 597, 599, 601–602; Hansen (2000), 141–142.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-de_Crespigny_2007_602_68-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-de_Crespigny_2007_602_68-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">b</a> de Crespigny (2007), 602.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-69" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 319–322.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-70" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 511; Beck (1986), 323.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-71" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 513–514.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-de_Crespigny_2007_511_72-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 511.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-ebrey_1986_628_629_73-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1986), 628–629.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-74" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 339–340.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-75" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1999), 84.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-76" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1994), 38–52.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-77" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 339–344.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-78" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 344; Zizhi Tongjian, <a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7059" rel="nofollow" title="zh:s:資治通鑑/卷059" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">vol. 59</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-79" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 344–345; Morton & Lewis (2005), 62.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-80" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 345.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-81" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 345–346.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-82" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 346–349.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-83" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 158.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-84" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 349–351; de Crespigny (2007), 36.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-beck_1986_351_352_crespigny_2007_36_37_85-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-beck_1986_351_352_crespigny_2007_36_37_85-1" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">b</a> Beck (1986), 351–352; de Crespigny (2007), 36–37.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-86" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 352; de Crespigny (2007), 37.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-87" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Beck (1986), 353–357; Hinsch (2002), 206.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-88" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 66–72.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-89" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 76; Bielenstein (1980), 105–107.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-90" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wang (1982), 83–85; Nishijima (1986), 581–583.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-91" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Nishijima (1986), 552–553; Ch'ü (1972), 16.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-chu_1972_84_92-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 84.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-93" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1986), 631, 643–644; Ebrey (1999), 80.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-94" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 141–142; de Crespigny (2007), 601–602.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-95" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 104–111; Nishijima (1986), 556–557; Ebrey (1986), 621–622; Ebrey (1974), 173–174.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-96" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 112.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-97" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 104–105, 119–120; Nishijima (1986), 576–577.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-98" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Nishijima (1986) 576 577; Ch'ü (1972), 114–117.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-99" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 127–128.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-100" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 172–173, 179–180; Ch'ü (1972), 106, 122–127.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-101" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 46–47; Ch'ü (1972), 3–9.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-102" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 9–10.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-103" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 35; Ch'ü (1972), 34.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-104" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 44–47; Hinsch (2002), 38–39.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-105" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 40–45; Ch'ü (1972), 37–43.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-106" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 17.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-107" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 6–9.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-108" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 17–18.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-109" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 49–59.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-110" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 74–75.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-111" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 54–56; Hinsch (2002), 29, 51, 54, 59–60, 65–68, 70–74, 77–78.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-hinsch_2002_29_112-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hinsch (2002), 29.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-113" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 513; Barbieri-Low (2007), 207; Huang (1988), 57.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-114" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 24–25; Loewe (1994), 128–130.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-115" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Kramers (1986), 754–756; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 7–8; Loewe (1994), 121–125; Ch'en (1986), 769.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-116" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Kramers (1986), 753–755; Loewe (1994), 134–140.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-117" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Kramers (1986), 754.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-118" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1999), 77–78; Kramers (1986), 757.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-119" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 103.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-120" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'en (1986), 773–794.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-121" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hardy (1999), 14–15; Hansen (2000), 137–138.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-122" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Norman (1988), 185; Xue (2003), 161.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-123" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1986), 645.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-124" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 137 138; de Crespigny (2007), 1049; Neinhauser et al. (1986), 212; Lewis (2007), 222; Cutter (1989), 25–26.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-125" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hulsewé (1986), 525–526; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 23–24; Hansen (2000), 110–112.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-126" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hulsewé (1986), 523–530; Hinsch (2002), 82.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-127" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hulsewé (1986), 532–535.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-128" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hulsewé (1986), 531–533.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-129" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hulsewé (1986), 528–529.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-130" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Nishijima (1986), 552–553, 576; Loewe (1968), 146–147.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-131" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wang (1982), 52.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-132" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wang (1982), 53, 206.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-133" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wang (1982), 57–58.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-134" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 119–121.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-135" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wang (1982), 206; Hansen (2000), 119.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-136" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Wang (1982), 53, 59–63, 206; Loewe (1968), 139; Ch'ü (1972), 128.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-137" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 30–31.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-138" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 119; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 140–141.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-139" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 71.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-140" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (1994), 55; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 167; Sun & Kistemaker (1997), 2–3; Ebrey (1999), 78 79.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-141" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ebrey (1999), 78–79; Loewe (1986), 201; de Crespigny (2007), 496, 592.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-142" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Loewe (2005), "Funerary Practice in Han Times," 101–102; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 116–117.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-143" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 144.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-144" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Hansen (2000), 144–146.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-needham_1972_112_145-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Needham (1972), 112; "Demieville (1986), 821–822.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-demieville_1986_821_822_146-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Demiéville (1986), 821–822.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-147" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Demiéville (1986), 823.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-148" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Akira (1998), 247–251; see also Needham (1972), 112.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-149" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Ch'ü (1972), 68–69.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-de_Crespigny_2007_1216_150-0" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> de Crespigny (2007), 1216; Wang (1949), 141–143.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-151" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; background-repeat: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a> Bielenstein (1980), 144; Wang (1949), 173–177.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty#cite_ref-152" rel="nofollow" style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0) !important; text-decoration: none; b